Learning hub · Operational Procedures · Lesson 1

Safe operations: checklists, threat and error management, and emergencies

Good pilots do not rely on memory or luck. They use checklists, a habit of looking for threats, and a plan for when something goes wrong. This lesson covers the principles. The drills themselves belong to your aeroplane.

About 13 minutes, plus the quiz. Part of Operational Procedures. It builds on Hypoxia, fatigue and your limits.

1. Why checklists exist

People forget things, most of all when they are busy, tired or interrupted. A checklist does not make you a worse pilot. It is a way to make sure a skilled pilot does not miss the one item that matters on the day. Many aviation checklists exist because something was missed in the past.

• Normal checklists are for routine phases: before start, before take-off, before landing and so on.
• Abnormal checklists cover problems that are not an immediate danger.
• Emergency checklists cover the serious cases. A few first actions are memorised, and the rest is read from the checklist once the aeroplane is under control.

There are two main ways to use a list. With read and do, you read an item and then do it. With do and check (also called a flow), you do the actions from memory and then read the list to confirm nothing was missed. Which method applies to which phase is set in the flight manual or by your school. Whichever you use, touch the item and look at it. Reading the words without checking the switch or the lever defeats the purpose.

An interruption is the enemy of a checklist. If something breaks your flow, go back to the start of the list or to the last item you are sure of.

2. The pre-flight and the walk-round

The flight starts long before the engine. The pre-flight has two parts: the paperwork and the aeroplane.

The paperwork. Are you fit to fly (see the IMSAFE idea in the human performance lesson)? Is the weather suitable for your skills, now and on the way? Have you read the NOTAMs? Is the route planned, the fuel enough with a reserve, the mass and balance within limits, and the performance for the runway acceptable? Does the aeroplane have its documents, and is it airworthy, with no open defects that stop the flight?

The walk-round. Follow the sequence in your flight manual or school checklist, so that you do it the same way each time. The usual principles apply to every type:

• Remove locks, covers and tie-downs, and check that nothing is left behind.
• Check the fuel quantity by looking, not just by trusting the gauge, and sample the fuel for water and contamination as the manual says. Check that the caps are secure.
• Check the oil and other fluids against the manual.
• Look at the control surfaces, hinges and linkages. They should be secure and move freely in the correct sense.
• Look at the propeller, the tyres, the undercarriage, the lights, and the pitot and static openings, which must be clear.
• Look for cracks, dents, leaks and loose panels. If something looks wrong, ask someone qualified before you fly.

Do not hurry. A pre-flight rushed because you are late is a common start to a bad day.

3. Threat and error management

Threat and error management (TEM) is a way to think about risk. It begins from a plain fact: nobody flies without meeting problems, and nobody flies without making mistakes.

• A threat is something outside your control that increases the risk: bad weather, a short runway, busy airspace, a rushed schedule, a distracted passenger, a dark night.
• An error is something you do, or fail to do, that takes you away from your plan: a wrong frequency, a missed checklist item, a poor landing.
• An undesired aircraft state is when the aeroplane is in a position that reduces the safety margin, for example too low, too slow or off course. This is the point where an error has become a problem.

The aim is not a perfect flight. It is to spot threats early, trap errors before they matter, and recover from the undesired state quickly. The tools are mostly simple: brief yourself before each phase, set personal minimums in advance, use checklists, keep a margin in fuel, daylight and weather, say “no” to pressure, and be ready to change the plan. Choosing to divert or not to go is a good decision, not a failure.

4. Aviate, navigate, communicate

When things go wrong, your attention is limited. Work in this order.

1. Aviate. Fly the aeroplane. Keep control of the attitude, speed and flight path. No other task is more important.
2. Navigate. Know where you are, where you are going, and where the terrain and the nearest suitable landing place are.
3. Communicate. Tell someone. Use the radio, and tell the passengers what is happening. A call for help is useful, but it does not fly the aeroplane.

Stress narrows your attention, so a plan you have rehearsed beforehand helps. Many accidents begin with a small problem and end with a pilot who stopped flying the aeroplane to deal with it.

5. Emergencies and the go-around

These are principles, not procedures. Speeds, actions and their order differ between aeroplanes.

The real drills for your aeroplane are in its approved flight manual and in your school’s training. Learn them, and practise them with an instructor. Do not use this page, or any web page, as a checklist for a real emergency.

• Engine failure after take-off. You have little height and little time. The first action is to keep control and flying speed by lowering the nose. Then choose a place to land roughly ahead and land under control. Decide in advance, on the ground, what you will do. Turning back should only be considered if you have trained for it and have enough height, and the decision is best made before you take off, not during the emergency. A landing under control, even in a poor field, is usually better than a stall in a turn.
• Engine failure in cruise. You have more time. Fly the aeroplane at the glide speed given in the manual, choose a landing area early, and then run through the restart actions in the manual. Make a distress call and set the transponder as taught. Prepare for the landing, including the passengers and a secure cabin.
• Fire. The actions depend on where the fire is, in the engine or in the cabin, and on the type of aeroplane. The general idea is to stop the source of fuel and electrical supply as the manual says, make a distress call, and land as soon as you can.
• Lost procedure. Do not panic or continue guessing. Stay calm, keep flying, and think back to the last position you were sure of. Check the time and heading, look for features on the chart, and use any aid you have. If you are still unsure, ask for help early. Calling ATC before you are in trouble is normal and welcomed. The international emergency frequency is 121.5 MHz.

The go-around. A go-around is the planned way to cancel a landing and climb away. Reasons include an unstable approach, a runway not clear, a bad flare, a gust, or an instruction from ATC. Make the decision early and without shame, because the later you leave it, the harder it becomes. The idea is the same on every type: set the power, put the aeroplane in a climbing attitude, and clean up the configuration in the order your flight manual gives. Then tell ATC. Pilots who treat a go-around as normal handle it well when it is needed.

6. Try it yourself

Work each one out on paper first, then open the answer to compare. The numbers are invented.

1. Classify each as a threat, an error or an undesired aircraft state, and name one way to deal with it: (a) a strong crosswind is forecast for your return; (b) you dial in the wrong frequency for the approach information; (c) you are 300 ft below the planned circuit height on the downwind leg.
   Show the answer

   (a) A threat: something outside your control that raises the risk. Deal with it early: brief it before the flight, check your personal minimums, plan to divert or choose a different runway or airfield.

   (b) An error: something you did that takes you away from your plan. Trap it before it matters: read back the frequency, use the checklist, and say “say again” if you are unsure.

   (c) An undesired aircraft state: the aeroplane is in a position that reduces the safety margin. Recover quickly, fly the aeroplane first, and tell ATC if needed.

   The aim is not a perfect flight. It is to spot threats early, trap errors before they matter, and recover from the undesired state quickly.

2. In cruise at 3,500 ft the engine begins to run roughly and the oil pressure is falling. A passenger asks what is wrong and you are not sure of your exact position. In what order do you work, and what goes in each step? Use the principles only, not engine drills: those are in the flight manual.
   Show the answer

   Aviate: fly the aeroplane first. Keep control of attitude, speed and flight path, and fly the glide speed in the manual if power is lost. No other task is more important.

   Navigate: know where you are and where the terrain and the nearest suitable landing place are, and choose a landing area early. Use the chart and any aid you have.

   Communicate: make the distress call (121.5 MHz is the international emergency frequency), set the transponder as taught, and tell the passengers what is happening and how to prepare. A call for help is useful, but it does not fly the aeroplane.

   Then run through the actions in the manual. Many accidents begin with a small problem and end with a pilot who stopped flying the aeroplane to deal with it.

3. At 300 ft after take-off the engine fails. What is the first action? Why should the decision about turning back be made on the ground?
   Show the answer

   The first action is to keep control and flying speed by lowering the nose. You have little height and little time.

   Then choose a place to land roughly ahead and land under control. Turning back should only be considered if you have trained for it and have enough height. A landing under control, even in a poor field, is usually better than a stall in a turn.

   Decide in advance, on the ground, because there is no time to think in the emergency and stress narrows your attention. A plan you have rehearsed is the one you will use. Follow your own aeroplane’s flight manual and your instructor.

7. Watch

An introduction to threats, errors and how to manage them, from a general aviation point of view.

Open on YouTube if the player does not load. Not made by VectorEFB; check what you learn against your flying school’s material and your instructor.

More to watch

A safety presentation from the Australian regulator in which an aviation safety advisor uses practical examples to show how pilots can use threat and error management, including around aerodromes. This video is Australian, so wording and some rules differ from European (ICAO/EASA) practice.

Open on YouTube if the player does not load. Not made by VectorEFB.

8. Check yourself

Five original practice questions. Answer them, press Check answers and read each explanation.

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